Prevalence of Hantaviruses Harbored by Murid Rodents in Northwestern Ukraine and Discovery of a Novel Puumala Virus Strain.

In Europe, two species of hantaviruses, Puumala orthohantavirus (PUUV) and Dobrava orthohantavirus (DOBV), cause hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in humans. The rodent reservoirs for these viruses are common throughout Ukraine, and hence, the goal of this study was to identify the species and strains of hantaviruses circulating in this region. We conducted surveillance of small rodent populations in a rural region in northwestern Ukraine approximately 30 km from Poland. From the 424 small mammals captured, we identified nine species, of which the most abundant were Myodes glareolus, the bank vole (45%); Apodemus flavicollis, the yellow-necked mouse (29%); and Apodemus agrarius, the striped field mouse (14.6%) Using an indirect immunofluorescence assay, 15.7%, 20.5%, and 33.9% of the sera from M. glareolus, A. glareolus, and A. flavicollis were positive for hantaviral antibodies, respectively. Additionally, we detected antibodies to the hantaviral antigen in one Microtus arvalis, one Mus musculus, and one Sorex minutus. We screened the lung tissue for hantaviral RNA using next-generation sequencing and identified PUUV sequences in 25 small mammals, including 23 M. glareolus, 1 M. musculus, and 1 A. flavicollis, but we were unable to detect DOBV sequences in any of our A. agrarius specimens. The percent identity matrix and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses of the S-segment of PUUV from 14 M. glareolus lungs suggest the highest similarity (92-95% nucleotide or 99-100% amino acid) with the Latvian lineage. This new genetic information will contribute to future molecular surveillance of human cases in Ukraine.

Genetic Diversity of Puumala orthohantavirus in Rodents and Human Patients in Austria, 2012-2019.

Puumala orthohantavirus (PUUV) has a wide distribution throughout Europe. Distinctive temporal patterns of spillover into the human population are related to population dynamics of the reservoir host, the bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus). As the rodent host is tied to specific habitats with small individual ranges, PUUV genetic diversity is also highly correlated with geographic distance. Using sequenced portions of viral S and M segments, we determined whether geographic clusters were supported. Human cases of PUUV infections are concentrated in southeastern Austria. We detected four distinct genotypes: two genotypes of the Alpe-Adria (ALAD) lineage typically associated with southeast Europe, and two sublineages of the Central Europe (CE) lineage. One cluster of CE genotypes represents a phylogenetically distinct sublineage compared to previously reported CE clades, and extends the boundary of the CE lineage further south than previously reported.

Revisiting the genetic diversity of emerging hantaviruses circulating in Europe using a pan-viral resequencing microarray.

Hantaviruses are zoonotic agents transmitted from small mammals, mainly rodents, to humans, where they provoke diseases such as Hemorrhagic fever with Renal Syndrome (HFRS) and its mild form, Nephropathia Epidemica (NE), or Hantavirus Cardio-Pulmonary Syndrome (HCPS). Hantaviruses are spread worldwide and monitoring animal reservoirs is of primary importance to control the zoonotic risk. Here, we describe the development of a pan-viral resequencing microarray (PathogenID v3.0) able to explore the genetic diversity of rodent-borne hantaviruses endemic in Europe. Among about 800 sequences tiled on the microarray, 52 correspond to a tight molecular sieve of hantavirus probes covering a large genetic landscape. RNAs from infected animal tissues or from laboratory strains have been reverse transcribed, amplified, then hybridized to the microarray. A classical BLASTN analysis applied to the sequence delivered through the microarray allows to identify the hantavirus species up to the exact geographical variant present in the tested samples. Geographical variants of the most common European hantaviruses from France, Germany, Slovenia and Finland, such as Puumala virus, Dobrava virus and Tula virus, were genetically discriminated. Furthermore, we precisely characterized geographical variants still unknown when the chip was conceived, such as Seoul virus isolates, recently emerged in France and the United Kingdom.

Prediction of the Spatial Origin of Puumala Virus Infections Using L Segment Sequences Derived from a Generic Screening PCR.

To screen diagnostic specimens for the presence of hantavirus genomes or to identify new hantaviruses in nature, the pan-hanta L-PCR assay, a broadly reactive nested reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay targeting the L segment, is highly preferred over other assays because of its universality and high sensitivity. In contrast, the geographic allocation of Puumala virus strains to defined outbreak regions in Germany was previously done based on S segment sequences. We show that the routinely generated partial L segment sequences resulting from the pan-hanta L-PCR assay provide sufficient phylogenetic signal to inform the molecular epidemiology of the Puumala virus. Consequently, an additional S segment analysis seems no longer necessary for the identification of the spatial origin of a virus strain.

Cytokine Storm Combined with Humoral Immune Response Defect in Fatal Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome Case, Tatarstan, Russia.

Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) is endemic in Tatarstan, where thousands of cases are registered annually. Puumalaorthohantavirus is commonly detected in human case samples as well as in captured bank voles, the rodent hosts. The pathogenesis of HFRS is still not well described, although the cytokine storm hypothesis is largely accepted. In this study, we present a comprehensive analysis of a fatal HFRS case compared with twenty four non-fatal cases where activation of the humoral and cellular immune responses, pro-inflammatory cytokines and disturbed blood coagulation were detected using immunological, histological, genetic and clinical approaches. Multiple organ failure combined with disseminated intravascular coagulation syndrome and acute renal failure was the cause of death. Decreased Interleukin (IL)-7 and increased IL-18, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand (CCL)-5, stem cell growth factor (SCGF)-b and tumor necrosis factor-beta (TNF-ß) serum levels were found, supporting the cytokine storm hypothesis of hantavirus pathogenesis.

Circulation and diagnostics of Puumala virus in Norway: nephropatia epidemica incidence and rodent population dynamics.

Hantaviruses pose a public health concern worldwide causing haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS). Puumala virus (PUUV) is the most prevalent hantavirus in Central and Northern Europe, and causes a mild form of HFRS, also known as nephropathia epidemica (NE). In nature, the main host of PUUV is the bank vole (Myodes glareolus), and transmission to humans occurs through inhalation of aerosols from rodent excreta. Nephropathia epidemica is particularly prevalent in Nordic countries, however, few studies of PUUV have been performed in Norway. The aim of this study was to analyse the dynamics of PUUV in Norway and compare with bank vole population dynamics, and also to complement the current diagnostic methodology of NE in Norway. Our results showed a significant seasonal and geographical variation of NE, and a general parallel peak trend between bank vole population densities and human NE incidence. A real-time and a nested PCR were successfully established as an invaluable diagnostic tool, with detection and sequencing of PUUV in a human serum sample for the first time in Norway. Phylogenetic analysis showed clustering of the obtained human sample with previous Norwegian bank vole isolates.

A highly divergent Puumala virus lineage in southern Poland.

Puumala virus (PUUV) represents one of the most important hantaviruses in Central Europe. Phylogenetic analyses of PUUV strains indicate a strong genetic structuring of this hantavirus. Recently, PUUV sequences were identified in the natural reservoir, the bank vole (Myodes glareolus), collected in the northern part of Poland. The objective of this study was to evaluate the presence of PUUV in bank voles from southern Poland. A total of 72 bank voles were trapped in 2009 at six sites in this part of Poland. RT-PCR and IgG-ELISA analyses detected three PUUV positive voles at one trapping site. The PUUV-infected animals were identified by cytochrome b gene analysis to belong to the Carpathian and Eastern evolutionary lineages of bank vole. The novel PUUV S, M and L segment nucleotide sequences showed the closest similarity to sequences of the Russian PUUV lineage from Latvia, but were highly divergent to those previously found in northern Poland, Slovakia and Austria. In conclusion, the detection of a highly divergent PUUV lineage in southern Poland indicates the necessity of further bank vole monitoring in this region allowing rational public health measures to prevent human infections.

Puumala Virus in Bank Voles, Lithuania.

Little is known about the presence of human pathogenic Puumala virus (PUUV) in Lithuania. We detected this virus in bank voles (Myodes glareolus) in a region of this country in which previously PUUV-seropositive humans were identified. Our results are consistent with heterogeneous distributions of PUUV in other countries in Europe.

Characterization of Puumala hantavirus in bank voles from two regions in the Netherlands where human cases occurred.

Puumala hantavirus (PUUV) is the most common and widespread hantavirus in Europe and is associated with a mild form of haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in humans, called nephropathia epidemica. This study presents the molecular characterization of PUUV circulating in bank voles in two regions of the Netherlands. Most human cases of hantavirus infection are from these two regions. Phylogenetic analysis of the (partial) S, M and L-segments indicated that the Dutch strains belong to the CE lineage, which includes PUUV strains from France, Germany and Belgium. We have identified two distinct groups of PUUV, corresponding with their geographic origin and with adjoining regions in neighbouring countries.

Complete Genome and Phylogeny of Puumala Hantavirus Isolates Circulating in France.

Puumala virus (PUUV) is the agent of nephropathia epidemica (NE), a mild form of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) in Europe. NE incidence presents a high spatial variation throughout France, while the geographical distribution of the wild reservoir of PUUV, the bank vole, is rather continuous. A missing piece of the puzzle is the current distribution and the genetic variation of PUUV in France, which has been overlooked until now and remains poorly understood. During a population survey, from 2008 to 2011, bank voles were trapped in eight different forests of France located in areas known to be endemic for NE or in area from where no NE case has been reported until now. Bank voles were tested for immunoglobulin (Ig)G ELISA serology and two seropositive animals for each of three different areas (Ardennes, Jura and Orleans) were then subjected to laboratory analyses in order to sequence the whole S, M and L segments of PUUV. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that French PUUV isolates globally belong to the central European (CE) lineage although isolates from Ardennes are clearly distinct from those in Jura and Orleans, suggesting a different evolutionary history and origin of PUUV introduction in France. Sequence analyses revealed specific amino acid signatures along the N protein, including in PUUV from the Orleans region from where NE in humans has never been reported. The relevance of these mutations in term of pathophysiology is discussed.

Hokkaido genotype of Puumala virus in the grey red-backed vole (Myodes rufocanus) and northern red-backed vole (Myodes rutilus) in Siberia.

Three species of Myodes voles known to harbor hantaviruses include the bank vole (Myodes glareolus), which serves as the reservoir host of Puumala virus (PUUV), the prototype arvicolid rodent-borne hantavirus causing hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) in Europe, and the grey red-backed vole (Myodes rufocanus) and royal vole (Myodes regulus) which carry two PUUV-like hantaviruses, designated Hokkaido virus (HOKV) and Muju virus (MUJV), respectively. To ascertain the hantavirus harbored by the northern red-backed vole (Myodes rutilus), we initially screened sera from 233 M. rutilus, as well as from 90 M. rufocanus and 110 M. glareolus, captured in western and eastern Siberia during June 2007 to October 2009, for anti-hantaviral antibodies. Thereafter, lung tissues from 44 seropositive voles were analyzed for hantavirus RNA by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Partial L-, M- and S-segment sequences, detected in M. rutilus and M. rufocanus, were closely related to HOKV, differing from previously published L-, M- and S-segment sequences of HOKV by 17.8-20.2%, 15.9-23.4% and 15.0-17.0% at the nucleotide level and 2.6-7.9%, 1.3-6.3% and 1.2-4.0% at the amino acid level, respectively. Alignment and comparison of hantavirus sequences from M. glareolus trapped in Tyumen Oblast showed very high sequence similarity to the Omsk lineage of PUUV. Phylogenetic analysis, using neighbor-joining, maximal likelihood and Bayesian methods, showed that HOKV strains shared a common ancestry with PUUV and exhibited geographic-specific clustering. This report provides the first molecular evidence that both M. rutilus and M. rufocanus harbor HOKV, which might represent a genetic variant of PUUV.

Complete genome of a Puumala virus strain from Central Europe.

Puumala virus (PUUV) is one of the predominant hantavirus species in Europe causing mild to moderate cases of haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. Parts of Lower Saxony in north-western Germany are endemic for PUUV infections. In this study, the complete PUUV genome sequence of a bank vole-derived tissue sample from the 2007 outbreak was determined by a combined primer-walking and RNA ligation strategy. The S, M and L genome segments were 1,828, 3,680 and 6,550 nucleotides in length, respectively. Sliding-window analyses of the nucleotide sequences of all available complete PUUV genomes indicated a non-homogenous distribution of variability with hypervariable regions located at the 3'-ends of the S and M segments. The overall similarity of the coding genome regions to the other PUUV strains ranged between 80.1 and 84.7 % at the level of the nucleotide sequence and between 89.5 and 98.1 % for the deduced amino acid sequences. In comparison to the phylogenetic trees of the complete coding sequences, trees based on partial segments revealed a general drop in phylogenetic support and a lower resolution. The Astrup strain S and M segment sequences showed the highest similarity to sequences of strains from geographically close sites in the Osnabrück Hills region. In conclusion, a primer-walking-mediated strategy resulted in the determination of the first complete nucleotide sequence of a PUUV strain from Central Europe. Different levels of variability along the genome provide the opportunity to choose regions for analyses according to the particular research question, e.g., large-scale phylogenetics or within-host evolution.

Muju virus, harbored by Myodes regulus in Korea, might represent a genetic variant of Puumala virus, the prototype arvicolid rodent-borne hantavirus.

The genome of Muju virus (MUJV), identified originally in the royal vole (Myodes regulus) in Korea, was fully sequenced to ascertain its genetic and phylogenetic relationship with Puumala virus (PUUV), harbored by the bank vole (My. glareolus), and a PUUV-like virus, named Hokkaido virus (HOKV), in the grey red-backed vole (My. rufocanus) in Japan. Whole genome sequence analysis of the 6544-nucleotide large (L), 3652-nucleotide medium (M) and 1831-nucleotide small (S) segments of MUJV, as well as the amino acid sequences of their gene products, indicated that MUJV strains from different capture sites might represent genetic variants of PUUV, the prototype arvicolid rodent-borne hantavirus in Europe. Distinct geographic-specific clustering of MUJV was found in different provinces in Korea, and phylogenetic analyses revealed that MUJV and HOKV share a common ancestry with PUUV. A better understanding of the taxonomic classification and pathogenic potential of MUJV must await its isolation in cell culture.

First molecular evidence for Puumala hantavirus in Poland.

Puumala virus (PUUV) causes mild to moderate cases of haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS), and is responsible for the majority of hantavirus infections of humans in Fennoscandia, Central and Western Europe. Although there are relatively many PUUV sequences available from different European countries, little is known about the presence of this virus in Poland. During population studies in 2009 a total of 45 bank voles were trapped at three sites in north-eastern Poland, namely islands on Dejguny and Dobskie Lakes and in a forest near Mikolajki. S and M segment-specific RT-PCR assays detected PUUV RNA in three animals from the Mikolajki site. The obtained partial S and M segment sequences demonstrated the highest similarity to the corresponding segments of a PUUV strain from Latvia. Analysis of chest cavity fluid samples by IgG ELISA using a yeast-expressed PUUV nucleocapsid protein resulted in the detection of two seropositive samples, both being also RT-PCR positive. Interestingly, at the trapping site in Mikolajki PUUV-positive bank voles belong to the Carpathian and Eastern genetic lineages within this species. In conclusion, we herein present the first molecular evidence for PUUV in the rodent reservoir from Poland.

Another case of "European hantavirus pulmonary syndrome" with severe lung, prior to kidney, involvement, and diagnosed by viral inclusions in lung macrophages.

Puumala virus (PUUV) is considered a classic Old World etiologic agent of nephropathia epidemica (NE), or hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS). HFRS is considered to be distinct from hantavirus (cardio-)pulmonary syndrome (HPS or HCPS), described in the New World. Here, we report a severe case, which fulfilled most, if not all, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) criteria for HPS, needing non-invasive ventilation and subsequent acute hemodialysis. However, the etiological agent was PUUV, as proved by serological testing, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and sequencing. Viral antigen was detected by specific anti-PUUV immunostaining, showing, for the first time, greenish intracytoplasmic inclusions in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) macrophages. This case definitely confirms that HPS can be encountered during PUUV infections. Interestingly, special findings could render the diagnosis easier, such as greenish homogeneous cytoplasmic inclusions, surrounded by a fine clear halo in BAL macrophages. Therefore, although the diagnosis remains difficult before the onset of renal involvement, the occurrence of severe respiratory failure mimicking community-acquired pneumonia must alert the clinician for possible HPS, especially in endemic areas.

Development and evaluation of a broad reacting SYBR-green based quantitative real-time PCR for the detection of different hantaviruses.

BACKGROUND: Hantaviruses are endemic in most parts of the world and cause hundreds of thousand human cases of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) annually throughout Eurasia and the Americas. They are zoonotic viruses, most commonly transmitted to humans by aerosolized rodent excreta. New hantaviruses are frequently discovered in previously unknown reservoir species and geographic areas. Consequently, there is a need to improve hantavirus diagnostics. OBJECTIVES: This paper describes the design and evaluation of a rapid and robust quantitative real-time PCR (QRT-PCR) assay able to detect a wide range of hantaviruses. STUDY DESIGN: Primers with the potential to detect different hantaviruses were designed from conserved regions of different hantavirus L segments, as identified from multiple sequence alignments. RESULTS: By using SYBR-green-based QRT-PCR 100-1000 target molecules of in vitro produced RNA and less than 100 copies of hantavirus RNA from different hantavirus clades and regions of the world were detected. When using the assay on clinical samples from patients with acute HFRS, Puumala hantavirus (PUUV) RNA was confirmed in all previously positive samples. Notably, the broad reacting L-segment QRT-PCR also detected viral RNA in HFRS patient samples, previously negative by a QRT-PCR targeting the S segment of PUUV. CONCLUSIONS: This novel assay provides a powerful tool for diagnosis of hantaviruses from different clades and regions and may also be useful in surveys with the purpose of finding new hantaviruses in rodent or insectivore species.

Analysis of complete Puumala virus genome, Finland.

Puumala virus causes nephropathia epidemica, a rodent-borne zoonosis that is endemic to Europe. We sequenced the complete Puumala virus genome that was directly recovered from a person who died and compared it with those of viruses from local bank voles. The virus strain involved was neither a unique nor rare genetic variant.

Multiple synchronous outbreaks of Puumala virus, Germany, 2010.

To investigate 2,017 cases of hantavirus disease in Germany, we compared 38 new patient-derived Puumala virus RNA sequences identified in 2010 with bank vole-derived small segment RNA sequences. The epidemic process was driven by outbreaks of 6 Puumala virus clades comprising strains of human and vole origin. Each clade corresponded to a different outbreak region.

Co-circulation of two Puumala hantavirus lineages in Latvia: a Russian lineage described previously and a novel Latvian lineage.

Puumala hantavirus (PUUV) causes a mild form of haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in Europe. Seven genetic lineages of PUUV have thus far been recorded, which exhibit geographic structure within the distribution of its natural host, the bank vole (Myodes glareolus). This study presents evidence for two distinct PUUV lineages co-circulating in Latvia: one previously described from Russia and a novel one that appears to be endemic. The Latvian lineage (LAT) is considerably divergent and several amino acid markers make it easily distinguishable. Phylogenetic analysis suggested a possibility of different evolutionary histories for the PUUV genome segments of LAT.

Phylogenetic analysis of Puumala virus subtype Bavaria, characterization and diagnostic use of its recombinant nucleocapsid protein.

Puumala virus (PUUV) is the predominant hantavirus species in Germany causing large numbers of mild to moderate cases of haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS). During an outbreak in South-East Germany in 2004 a novel PUUV subtype designated Bavaria was identified as the causative agent of HFRS in humans [1]. Here we present a molecular characterization of this PUUV strain by investigating novel partial and almost entire nucleocapsid (N) protein-encoding small (S-) segment sequences and partial medium (M-) segment sequences from bank voles (Myodes glareolus) trapped in Lower Bavaria during 2004 and 2005. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed their classification as subtype Bavaria, which is further subdivided into four geographical clusters. The entire N protein, harbouring an amino-terminal hexahistidine tag, of the Bavarian strain was produced in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and showed a slightly different reactivity with N-specific monoclonal antibodies, compared to the yeast-expressed N protein of the PUUV strain Vranica/Hällnäs. Endpoint titration of human sera from different parts of Germany and from Finland revealed only very slight differences in the diagnostic value of the different recombinant proteins. Based on the novel N antigen indirect and monoclonal antibody capture IgG-ELISAs were established. By using serum panels from Germany and Finland their validation demonstrated a high sensitivity and specificity. In summary, our investigations demonstrated the Bavarian PUUV strain to be genetically divergent from other PUUV strains and the potential of its N protein for diagnostic applications.